The Second Great Awakening which occurred during the late 18th and early 19th centuries was a time characterized by increased religious fervor across the whole of America. Although, many areas seemed more susceptible to this religious fervor such as upper New York State, which eventually became known as the Burned-Over District or the state of Kentucky which was the center for numerous religious revivals characteristic of the era. In many ways the Second Great Awakening was a reaction to drastic social, cultural and economic change that was occurring. The results of industrialization changed traditional American society. Before Market Revolution most Americans were connected by their families and relatives in a network of relationships. By the early 19th century a large migration had occurred as western lands opened up to settlement. This movement helped destroy the relationship that many relied on. American’s definition of success also became hollower. As a result of these changes many people began to ask questions some of these questions were religious. These questions would be the foundation of the Second Great Awakening, a movement that would have lasting effects on American Society.
Before the Second Great Awakening, America was not a religious country; it was because of this movement that it became one. It is important to remember that America was not founded by a group of religious men as we often believe. Yes, most of the founding fathers believed in God, but that was about the extent of their belief system. Most of the founding fathers were deists. They believed that there was a God, but believed that after he created the world, he took a step back, that is, He no longer meddled with the affairs of men. As a result of the Second Great Awakening America became an increasingly religious nation. For example, at the time of independence there were fewer that 2,000 Christian ministers within the United States. By 1845 there were over 40,000 Christian ministers. It was the Second Great Awakening that helped transform the United States into a religious nation.
Another theme of the Second Great Awakening was the democratization of Christianity. Initially those who wanted to become religious ministers were required to attend college for several years. During the Second Great Awakening this notion changed. Those who wished to be ministers were no longer required to be theologians, rather any person with an interest in preaching was allowed to do so, all that was required was knowledge of scripture and a desire to preach. Religion was for everyone, whites, blacks, men, women; all were allowed to participate in the religious fervor that gripped the nation.
Another important effect that the Second Great Awakening had on American history was the fact that that the movement gave way for many reform movements and increased social awareness. Before the Second Great Awakening slavery was a social problem, after this movement slavery became a religious issue. In his Second Inaugural Address Abraham Lincoln stated, “If we shall suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove…” Slavery was not the only issue that was effected by the Second Great Awakening. Issues of temperance, enfranchisement or women, and other social issues but were slightly smaller compared to slavery. It is quite possible that the Second Great Awakening played a pivotal role in occurrence of the Civil War.
The Second Great Awakening also played a key role in the emergence of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The church, I believe, has had an enormous effect on the history of the United States and the history of the World. Due to the religious fervor of the time Joseph Smith prayed to our Heavenly Father to know to which church to join. As a result of his humble prayer the church was restored and now is a major world religion with a membership of over 13 million.
A type and shadow is a symbol or representation of something that is to come. Types and shadows are found throughout scripture. Examples include the binding of Isaac by his father Abraham for sacrifice. This is a type and shadow of our Heavenly Father sending his son Jesus Christ as a sacrifice for our sins. Through Christ’s atonement we are able to return to live with our Heavenly Father. Another example found in the Old Testament is the manna that was sent down to the Israelites as they wandered in the desert. This “bread of life” is a type and shadow of Jesus Christ, for it is through him that we can obtain eternal life.
The reason I discuss this theme of scripture is because this past week I had the opportunity to attend an exhibit in Brigham Young University’s Museum of Art titled "Types and Shadows: Intimations of Divinity". Each work of art is meant to exhibit some type or shadow of Christ or a gospel principle in general. Each of the works is beautiful in their own right. But the fact that each alludes to the divine in some way adds to their character. I appreciated this exhibit very much and was grateful for the opportunity that I had to attend the museum.
One of the first paintings that we viewed was a painting that most Latter-day Saints are familiar with. It is of Lehi and his family aboard a great ship. In the background we see numerous birds that signal the approaching land mass. Although the painting may seem like an ordinary painting the tour guide reminded us of a scripture found in 1 Nephi 17:8 which reads, “Thou shalt construct a ship, after the manner which I shall show thee, that I may carry thy people across these waters.” When the painting is viewed with this reference in mind I believe that it takes on an even greater meaning. Not only did the Lord provide a way for them to sail across the sea but he was constantly by their side helping to metaphorically “carry” them across the water.
I was deeply impressed by another painting in the museum. It is a painting of the prodigal son returning home to meet his father. There is a grand stair case that leads to a great house. The father has descended the stairs to meet the son even before the son can take two steps up the stairs. The son is clothed is rags which seem to tell of his struggles, while the father is in extravagant apparel. In this painting I found a very important type and shadow of Christ and our Heavenly Father. No one is perfect, we know this to be true, but even though we often go astray and make the wrong choices the minute we decide to turn our life around and continue in a path of righteousness our Heavenly Father will be waiting with open arms to greet us. He loves each and every one of us and wants us to succeed and return to live with him.
I have enjoyed the many opportunities that I have to visit the Museum of Art and am grateful that we were given time to attend this particular exhibit as we learn about our nations history. This is because I believe that the divine influence helped create this country. To quote George Washington, “No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the invisible hand… more than the People of the United States. Every step by which they have advanced…to an independent nation seems to have been distinguished by some token of providential agency.”
In my American Government class I recently had the opportunity to watch the film Amistad, staring Matthew McConaughey, Morgan Freeman, Anthony Hopkins, and directed by Steven Spielberg. This gripping adaptation of a miraculous true story, tells of a group of slaves bound for Cuba who revolted and took control over the ship La Amistad. The slaves were armed with cane knives and were able to overthrow the crew and hold the Captain hostage. They demanded that the Captain sail for Africa. The captain was deceiving and lied to the slaves about which direction they were sailing. The boat ended up traveling north towards the continental United States. They reached Long Island and were captured by the United States Navy. The salves were captured and sent to Connecticut where they were to be sold as slaves. A court battle ensued about the true origins of the slaves. There were many claims as to who should reap the profits of the slaves should they be sold. In the movie ownership is claimed on behalf of Queen Isabella of Spain (ironically the slave trade had been outlawed in Spain but not Cuba), two Cuban merchants, and the leaders of the American ship who captured La Amistad. There was also some question as to the origins of the ship. Eventually the lead attorney on the case discovers a manifest that shows that the salves are actually from Africa and were transported to Cuba and then arrived in America which violated current laws that outlawed the Atlantic slave trade in the United States. The case has national ramifications and is repealed to the Supreme Court by the current President Martin Van Buren. Because Van Buren was currently on the campaign trail any act of anti-slavery could have damaged his possibilities of re-election. In the end of the film they are able to reprove their case again and the slaves are able to return home.
As I reflect on the movie I am amazed by the historical significance that this event had. Not only was it an important victory for abolitionists but it was also was another step towards increased sectionalism between North and South. The film repeatedly speaks about the coming war, although the Civil War would not take place for another 20 years the grounds for it were set long in advance. The film addresses important points about the nature of slavery. In Africa salves were not captured by the merchants who transported them across the sea but rather by their neighboring villagers. In exchange the capturing tribe received guns; in order to protect themselves from slavery other tribes needed guns, so they in turn engaged in slavery. Another important point addressed is the absolutely appalling nature of the slave trade. As we have often discussed in class there are three themes of slavery, violence, terror, and death. All three of these themes were addressed in the movie. Some of the first scenes we observe are of the awful conditions of the slave ships. The slaves are chained together in cramped conditions. It is difficult to imagine being aboard a salve ship. Later we observe the meager rations that were given to slaves while being transported. In the movie only a select few are given a mess of a meal that looks awful to eat. The captains of the ship also dump some of the salves overboard when they realize that they do not have enough rations for all. This practice is truly appalling. The final element that shocked me was the fact that although the salve trade had been outlawed in most countries. But the salve trade continued to occur even though great efforts were employed to stop it. The film as a whole was deeply moving and I would recommend it to all.
I recently read a selection from Adam Smith’s An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations which is often known by its abbreviated name, The Wealth of Nations. This document was the inspiration of our market system today and was one of the documents studied by our founding fathers during the establishment of our country. Smith was a radical who revolutionized the way in which we think about our economies and market systems in general.
Before Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, the economies of most nations were based on a mercantilism system. This system described how wealthy nations were by how much treasure or gold the country had. The wealth was accumulated through trade regulation and encouraging exports. This system benefited the kings and rulers greatly. While the population as a whole remained poor and without a good quality of life the upper ruling class lived in luxury.
In his book Adam Smith questions this great disparity of wealth. He argued that wealth of a nation was determined by the lifestyle of the people. He believed that the wealth of a nation was determined by the quality of life that its citizens enjoyed. His idea greatly changed the ideas of how a market system functions. He believed that nations should encourage production and consumption of goods. Under the old mercantile system citizens had very few choices of what they could buy. Under Smith’s system their was a great expansion of liberty. People were allowed to choose between goods. This choice was very beneficial in a number of ways, it encourages price competition and increased quality as groups compete for buyers. The mercantilism system does not encourage efficiency, quality, and profits for investors. However it did depend on personal relationships with high ranking government officials. This system was unfair to the consumers as they were often forced to purchase over priced goods, as no other options were available. Smith’s market system is not perfect, as we are currently experiencing. There are expected ups and downs of the economy, but under this system citizens experience more liberty that they otherwise could under any other system. The market system is also beneficial in another way. Under the mercantilism system usually one party won while the other lost. Under Smith’s market system both parties benefit. Although one party may benefit more than the other the consumer has the right to decide whether a decision, such as the purchasing of a product, is beneficial. This was not the case under the mercantilism system.
Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations contributed to the overall freedom and liberty of Americans. The constitution provides that Americans will enjoy freedoms and liberties but outlines no economic system. It is Adam Smith’s book that is the basis for our capitalistic system today. His free market system increases quality and decreases price. It is under this system that the founding fathers established our nation. It is under this system by which we have become one of the most powerful nations in the world. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations should be considered one of the most influential books concerning the founding of our nation including Common Sense, and the writings of Voltaire, John Locke and others.
This past week I had the opportunity to attend the Crandall Printing Museum located on Center Street in Provo. This was the second opportunity I had to attend the museum and I enjoyed it even more than I did on my first visit. I would highly recommend taking a tour of this museum to any one who is interested in the founding of our nation or church history.
The Museum is divided into four sections. The first section is dedicated to the invention of the Gutenberg press by Johannes Gutenberg in mid 15th century. The tour guides explain the process by which Gutenberg invented the movable type printing press. The process was absolutely painstaking and involved hours of work and tinkering. In order to make one single letter took Gutenberg hours of work and experimentation. The patience and genius of Gutenberg are evidenced by the demonstration of the printing process by the tour guides. The best part of the printing museum is the hands-on demonstrations that occur throughout the tour. Not only do the guides tell you about printing they actually show you how it was done. They show every detail from the casting of letters down to the actual printing. This tour helped me appreciate the art and science of printing much more. The museum has also accumulated many artifacts over the years including old bible pages and printing presses themselves. I was fascinated by the old bible page that they passed around the group. The intricacy of the writing and decorations evidence the years of copying that it took monks to complete just one bible. This definitely gave me a greater appreciation for Gutenberg’s invention. He truly was an inspired man. Without his inventions we could very well be stuck in the dark ages.
The next room was the colonial room. Here we were greeted by Benjamin Franklin. In this room we learned about the Benjamin Franklin and involvement with printing, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution. It was interesting to see the differences between the printing presses. The press in the Franklin room was smaller and more streamlined. In this room we were also told about Thomas Paine and his book Common Sense. The literature that was produced during this time was just as important as the war itself. Without printing and documents like the Declaration of Independence and Common Sense there would be no America today.
The third room that we entered was a replica of the shop in which the Book of Mormon was printed; in fact the room is almost exactly the same size, down to the inch. The press in this room was produced at the same time as the actual press used in New York to print the Book of Mormon. Here we learned of the great difficulties of printing the Book of Mormon, including the punctuating of the book while setting the type. The most fascinating story told to us was by Brother Crandall, one of his guests of the museum was the binder at Colonial Williamsburg. When Brother Crandall asked how long it would take to bind 5,000 books, the guest politely asked, “Do you mean 500?” The guest was amazed that the book binders were able to bind over 5,000 books in such a short amount of time. There are many other stories that, to me, evidence the hand of God in the production of the Book of Mormon. It is Brother Crandall’s testimony and I would add mine to it, that the hand of God was involved in the printing of the book. The final room was the Deseret News room, we ran out of time and were not able to hear the full presentation but this press was much smaller and more streamlined than all of the other presses. It was amazing to see the evolution of the printing press and the way that printing has helped shape our history. I enjoyed my visit to the Crandall Printing Museum very much and plan on returning again soon.
I have recently been reviewing and rereading my notes and book for my American Government class at BrighamYoungUniversity. I have come a cross a theme from our notes, I have noticed that the awful institution of slavery is a part of our discussion on a recurring basis. Before taking this class I thought I knew about slavery and the horrible practices that went along with it but this class and our discussions on the topic have truly been eye-opening.
During our first discussion as a class we learned about ancient slavery. Slavery was the basis for ancient civilizations and their society. Slavery was ubiquitous, that is, every known civilization was involved in slavery in one way or another. Slavery was a necessity for ancient society. If we think to one of the earliest great societies, the Egyptians, our thoughts are often drawn to the pyramids. These truly magnificent structures were made practical by the appalling use of slavery. The Pharaoh’s and other leaders of ancient world were only able to construct the pyramids and many of the other wonders of the world through slavery. They could not possible afford to pay thousands of men for twenty or more years to work on such structures. No man could possible afford such a thing.
We then entered a discussion concerning the differences between modern slavery and ancient slavery. The difference is simple; there was no racism in the institutions of ancient slavery. Slaves were simply accumulated through the winning of wars and the paying of debts. Once you were enslaved in the ancient world your children were often set free. There were many types of slaves. Blacks were no the only ones who were enslaved in the ancient world, all manner of men were enslaved. Modern slavery is much more horrendous because it was exclusively based on race. I am not saying that ancient slavery was good or even acceptable, but relatively speaking was much better that the modern slavery that plagued the American continent for over 100 years. We were presented by some horrendous numbers, it is estimated that in the time the slave trade existed over 14 million Africans were enslaved. It is estimated that 1.8 million slaves died in Africa before they reached the salve ships. Another 1.8 million are estimated to have died on the journey across the Atlantic. Finally, over 1.5 million are estimated to have died within the first year on enslavement due to unspeakable conditions and disease. Dr. Holzapfel spoke of three themes of modern slavery, violence, terror, and death. It is hard to imagine the awful conditions that slaves endured not only on the middle passage but while in America, the lived in constant fear of the unknown. They were constantly subject to abuse and rape.
We then jump ahead to the late 18th century during the time of the revolution. Many slaves and abolitionists saw the revolution as an opportunity for freedom. The Declaration of Independence states, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness” This however did not apply to slaves according to the founding fathers. By this time slavery had become an American tradition, it was deeply entrenched in American society. It was also the basis for the economy of the southern states. During the War for Independence many African Americans fought on both sides of the war. The British promised freedom to any slave that fought on their side, as did the Americans. Over 5,000 slaves gained freedom from the Americans. More gained freedom from the British. After the war the Constitution again contained rhetoric that was confusing, the preamble states, “We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” This once again sounds like it promotes equality for all but this once again was no the case. The Virginia Plan for the constitution did contain words that would end slavery, but once again the southern economies depended so much on slavery that they threatened to succeed from the union. As we know slavery was not officially abolished until the Civil War.
Slavery within the United States constitutes a large shameful part of our history. It is unfortunate that the founding fathers were not willing to take steps to end the practice. This would have indeed saved thousands of lives, if not millions.
I have recently read chapters 12-14 of 1st Nephi in the Book of Mormon. In these chapters Nephi is shown a vision of the History of the Americas and the events leading up to the restoration of the Gospel. I was amazed to read how both accurate and detailed this vision is. It begins with Jesus coming to the Americas. Nephi writes that that the Lord ordained twelve apostles. Nephi sees the passing away of three generations, the destruction of the Nephite nation, and the preservation of the record which had been kept from Nephi down to Moroni. The dream then jumps to the discovery of the Americas by the explorer Columbus. Nephi writes, “And it came to pass that I beheld the Spirit of God, that it came down and wrought upon the man; and he went fourth upon the many waters, even unto the seed of my brethren, who were in the Promised Land.” I was amazed to learn that the great Christopher Columbus himself credited his discovery to God in his journals he wrote, “Our Lord unlocked my mind, sent me upon the sea, and gave me fire for the deed. Those who heard of my enterprise called it foolish, mocked me, and laughed. But who can doubt but that the Holy Ghost inspired me?”
The next event that Nephi sees is the colonization of America by the Europeans. He sees the revolutionary war. He writes that, “their mother Gentiles were gathered together upon the waters, and upon the land also, to battle with them.” Nephi writes that God was with the Americans and that they were, “delivered by the power of God” from the British. After the war he sees the restoration of the Gospel by Joseph Smith and the coming fourth of the Book of Mormon and many other books including the Doctrine and Covenants and The Pearl of Great Price.
Many opponents of the Book of Mormon often think that Joseph Smith simply wrote down a history of the Americas as he knew it, but it is important to note many differences between the vision of history and what Joseph Smith knew to happen. One difference occurs in the part of the vision of the Revolutionary War. During the time that Joseph Smith was translating the record it was the opinion of Americans that the founding fathers were heroes who were able to fight the mighty British and win through their own genius. This is not the case in the Book of Mormon, Nephi writes that they were delivered by the hand of God. This is a common theme throughout all scripture. The Israelites were delivered from the Egyptians by the hand of God just as the Americans were from the British. Recent research shows that the Americans narrowly escaped defeat numerous times, each time they were saved by an unexpected storm, heavy fog, or an error on the behalf of the British. I have a firm belief that they were truly delivered by the hand of God.
I have a firm testimony of the divinity of the Book of Mormon; I know it to be true with all my heart. Joseph did not simply write down a story, he translated the record through the power of God, of which I have a testimony. I am grateful for the Prophet Joseph Smith and his great sacrifice. I know that it was through the power of God that the America was founded and because of its founding Joseph could restore the only true Church to the Earth.
